The Epic Of The Odyssey Essay - 942 Words

As we sift through the pages of Sunjata, we understand him to be a humble mediocre man who knows it s his right to be king, but who has to deal with adversity in order to get there. However, compared to Odysseus in The Odyssey, who is strong, but untrusting, we will soon see that Sunjata is not only a man but a hero. In both texts we see each man adored by many and even compared to Gods like Odysseus in The Odyssey. However, when we break down the words of each epic we are faced to confront the truths of what a hero really is. This claim explains why The Odyssey expresses a false sense of heroism whereas Sunjata gives the audience and example of a real hero. However, before the reader can examine the epics, we must first understand what an epic is. Epics are long poem, typically one derived from ancient oral tradition, narrating the deeds and adventures of heroic or legendary figures or the history of a nation. Typically epics involve supernatural powers, Gods, and an interesting journey of a hero bringing back knowledge and honor to his village or province. Furthermore, we as readers are able to identify both The Odyssey and Sunjata as epics. To be convinced of my claim, the first thing a reader needs to know is what the definition of a hero is. The modern definition of a hero stems from the idea of a person who is admired or idealized for courage, outstanding achievements or noble qualities. If we use this definition both epics contain Hero’s. However this definitionShow MoreRelatedThe Epic Of The Odyssey1192 Words   |  5 Pagescrisis; I personally wait and panic around 5:30 in the evening. Nonetheless, the question in figuring out one’s own identity has plagued humanity from the beginning of time and continues to affect even the culture of today. Found in the Greek epic The Odyssey, the title character’s son Telemachus confronts a multitude of outside difficulties, which in turn progresses his journey to find himself. In extension, more recent works including â€Å"Living with Integrity†, an essay by Bob Barret, encapsulatesRead MoreThe Epic Of The Odyssey1694 Words   |  7 PagesThe Ody ssey is a epic Greek poem written by the poet Homer. The poem takes place after the ten year Trojan war, and the main hero of the poem is the war hero Odyssey, King of Ithaca, and his long, perilous journey home to his wife and son. The poem takes place ten years after the Trojan war, and Odysseus hasn’t returned home from the war where he had successfully fought.   Odysseus son  Telemachus is a bright, brave, 20 years old who is living in his father s house on the island of  Ithaca  withRead MoreThe Epic Of Gilgamesh And The Odyssey1636 Words   |  7 PagesThe Epic of Gilgamesh and the Odysseus both are poems that have since early times been viewed as stories that teach the reader valuable life lessons, almost like a self-help book in today’s society. They both teach a lot of the same general lessons but there are some key similarities and differences throughout both works. Such as perseverance, and the inevitability of death are both lessons that are taught in each poem but they are presented to the reader through different interpretations. In theRead MoreEssay An Epic Odyssey1544 Words   |  7 PagesThe stories of epic heroes remain important to many cultures, the Greeks in particular. These tales of heroic men not only entertain, but they teach people about morals and values that most epic heroes exemplify, such as intelligence and bravery. To be an epic hero, characters are usually highly born, favored by the gods, perform great deeds, and have flaws. These tales are told in heightened style and occur in grand settings. Odysseus, the King of Ithaca, meets these traits and is considered a primeRead MoreThe Odyssey And The Epic Of Gilgamesh Essay1193 Words   |  5 PagesWhen it comes to the realm of epic poetry, and hero-like characters in literature, the two works The Odyssey and the Epic of Gilgamesh can be compared and contrasted in different ways. The Odyssey and the Epic of Gilgamesh can be compared as expressions of searches for the meaning of life through knowledge. The two stories are somewhat mirrors in this manner. Throughout each story, the characters Odysseus and Gilgamesh show growth and change. The Odyssey can be summed up by stating how the greatRead MoreThe Epic Of Gilgamesh And The Odyssey Essay790 Words   |  4 Pagesadventures taken by characters as a tool to exhibit the alteration of the character’s nature. Examples of such can be found in The Epic of Gilgamesh and The Odyssey. The journeys undertaken in The Epic of Gilgamesh and The Odyssey were transformative experiences for the characters in each and provided valuable cultural insights to the audience. At the start of The Epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh is the arrogant ruler of the city Uruk. He is obsessed with immortality, which can be seen in the descriptionRead MoreThe Odyssey An Epic Poem1418 Words   |  6 PagesThe Odyssey an epic poem that has stood the test of time as history is made. Homer made a story as raptured almost everyone who reads it. Even the most trivial characters seem to serve some important role later in the epic poem. Yet it seems that the meaning of this great piece of fiction changes with the changing desires of society. Yet one thing that Homer puts in every corner of the book stays the same with the test of time. The misfortune that hangs like the sword of Damocles over each characters’Read MoreThe Epic Of Gilgamesh And The Odyssey1487 Words   |  6 Pagessecrets and mysterious unknowns. It is because water can mean so many different things that it used so much to symbolize important things in literary pieces. In both the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Odyssey, water is used as a symbol that represents complex ideas, and it plays a significant role throughout both literary pieces. In the Epic of Gilgamesh, water is mainly used to symbolize life and death as well as rebirth or baptism. In several of Gilgamesh’s dreams water is used as a symbol that representsRead MoreThe Epic Of Gilgamesh And The Odyssey1765 Words   |  8 Pagesand how their values have been passed down and evolved over time. The Epic of Gilgamesh and The Odyssey are both considerable representations of not only their unique cultures that set the very foundation of both civilization and storytelling, but also for their similar and different aspects of what they considered to be a hero. The most familiar structure to mythological stories such as the Epic of Gilgamesh and The Odyssey is that of a â€Å"tragic plot†. A tragic plot is a perfect plot that is connectedRead MoreThe Epic Poem The Odyssey 1459 Words   |  6 PagesHospitality has been around and important to cultures for almost forever. In the epic poem The Odyssey by Homer, there are many themes, but the theme of hospitality reoccurs throughout the entire epic. This epic takes place in Ancient Greece after the Trojan War. The main character, Odysseus, is on a journey back home to Ithaca after being away for ten years. Along the way, he must make stops and stays in the homes of the different people during his journey. The individuals that are hosting the stranger

Nutrition cycle Free Essays

This paper gives the summary of the Nutrition cycle in the atmosphere. The Carbon cycle, Nitrogen cycle, Phosphorous cycle, Sulfur cycle and Hydrologic cycle are all discussed. The paper also mentions how the human activity has affected these cycles. We will write a custom essay sample on Nutrition cycle or any similar topic only for you Order Now Carbon cycle The Carbon Cycle is the circulation of carbon, fats, proteins, DNA and many other organic compounds that is required for life in the biosphere. It makes up for 0.038% of the volume of troposphere and is also present in water. The carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere is balanced by the generating, removing (terrestrial and aquatic producers) and cooling in the cycle. Any small changes in this cycle will affect the climate and life forms on the earth (Chapter3 55). Photosynthesis converts Carbon Dioxide into glucose. Aerobic respiration then breaks glucose and organic compounds and reconverts it to Carbon Dioxide and is released into the atmosphere. Recycling of Carbon takes place in the form of decomposition of dead plant matter to give fossil fuels such as coal and oil. These fossil fuels are non renewable energy (Chapter3 55). There are two main ways by which humans are affected, they are as follows – Firstly, humans clear trees and plants that help in photosynthesis and absorbs Carbon Dioxide. Secondly, Carbon Dioxide is added back to the atmosphere by burning wood and fossil fuels. The addition of Carbon Dioxide and other gases enhances the Earth’s natural green house effect. All this leads to global warming which affects the food produced and wildlife, temperature, precipitation and increases sea levels (Chapter3 55). Nitrogen cycle Nitrogen is available in large quantities in the atmosphere but cannot be directly used or absorbed by mutlicellular plants and animals. Nitrogen gas makes up for 78% of the volume of the troposphere   Ã‚  Atmospheric discharges like lighting, bacteria in aquatic systems in soil and the roots of plants convert the Nitrogen available into Nutrients that can be absorbed by plants or animals. This process is known as the Nitrogen Cycle (Chapter3 55). The process consists of Nitrification which converts nitrite ions to nitrate ions. Then Ammonification occurs wherein bacteria convert the detritus into simple nitrogen containing compounds such as Ammonia and water soluble salts (Ammonium ions). Denitrification then converts the Ammonia and Ammonium ions back into nitrite and nitrate ions and then further into Nitrogen gas and Nitrous gas, which is released into the atmosphere (Chapter3 55, 56). There are many ways by which humans are affected; some of them are as follows – First, Acid rain consisting of Nitrogen Dioxide and Nitric Acid causes damages in the form of acid depositions. Second, livestock and inorganic fertilizers release Nitrous Oxide into the atmosphere. This affects the ozone layer. Third, Nitrates contaminate groundwater making it harmful to drink. Fourth, Destruction of forests, wetlands and grasslands release Nitrogen compounds into the troposphere. Fifth, aquatic ecosystems is disturbed when too much nitrates is released. Sixth, Harvesting of Nitrogen rich crops, irrigation and then burning or clearing of topsoil before replanting crops removes Nitrogen in the topsoil (Chapter3 56). Phosphorous cycle Phosphorus circulation occurs through the water, earth’s crust and then the living organisms. The Phosphorus cycle is slower and flows from land to the oceans. It is found as Phosphate salts such as Phosphate ions present in terrestrial rock formations and sediments at the bottom of the ocean. Water flows erodes these inorganic compounds and transfers it to the oceans where deposition occurs. This sedimentation limits the growth of plants as it is only slightly soluble but very harmful (Chapter3 57, 58). There are three main ways by which humans are affected, they are as follows – Firstly, Phosphate rock mining is done to make inorganic fertilizers and detergents. Secondly, deforestation of tropical forests causes reduction of phosphate in tropical soils. Thirdly, aquatic life is disturbed due to Phosphates in animal wastes, fertilizers and sewage (Chapter3 58, 59). Sulfur cycle Sulfur circulation occurs through the biosphere. Sulfur is stored underground in rocks and minerals; these also include sulfate salts that are buried in ocean sediments. Sulfur enters the atmosphere as Hydrogen Sulfides, Sulfur dioxides, Sufides and Sulfate salts. Acid deposition occurs due to the conversion of Sulfur Dioxide to Sulfur trioxide and then to Sulfuric acid, which along with air pollution harms tress and aquatic life (Chapter3 59). There are three main ways by which humans are affected, they are as follows – Firstly, burning of coal and oil to produce electric power adds Sulfur into the atmosphere. Secondly, Refining of Sulfur containing petroleum is done to give gasoline, heating oil and many other products. Thirdly, metallic mineral ores containing Sulfur are converted into free metals like copper, lead and zinc, this process releases huge amount of Sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere (Chapter3 59). Hydrologic cycle The solar energy causes evaporation of water vapour on the earth’s surface into the atmosphere. Fresh water then returns to the earth’s surface as precipitation which gets locked in glaciers, some water gets stored in the ground as aquifers and the rest becomes surface runoff, which means water flows into lakes and streams, eventually flowing into the oceans. This process of evaporation, precipitation and percolation is a continuous cycle and is called the Water or Hydrologic cycle. This is therefore a global cycle that that collects, purifies, distributes and recycles the earth’s water supply (Chapter3 53, 54). There are three main ways by which humans are affected, they are as follows – Firstly, fresh water is obtained from streams, lakes and underground water. Secondly, land vegetation is cleared to build roads and construction buildings, for mining and for agricultural purposes. This process destroys wetlands and causes soil erosion, landslides and flooding. Thirdly, various nutrients in the form of fertilizers (phosphates and nitrates) and other pollutants are added to water causing imbalance in the ecological process that involves the purification of water (Chapter3 54, 55). Works Cited Chapter 3. Ecosystems: What are they and how do they work? Environmental Science Now. http://biology.brookscole.com/miller11 How to cite Nutrition cycle, Essay examples

One Man Control free essay sample

What is Meant By One Man Control? One man control or one man business (also called sole proprietorship) is the simplest form of business organization. The description ‘One man business’ or ‘one man control’ is sometimes con as misleading one, as there may be more than one persons working as employees in the business. The essential condition of one man control or one man business is that it i. e. a business owned by one person, managed and operated for one’s own profit. Statute of One Ban BusinessThe one man business’ was the earliest to be developed. It is even today, the most common and numerically the largest form of business ownership in the developed and underdeveloped countries of the world. It represents about more than 74% of all the business firms. However the share of sole proprietorship in the national income is small of all the business activities. That is why it Is said of sole traders that they are an awful lot of them but they do not do very much. We will write a custom essay sample on One Man Control or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page † Is One Man Control Best in The World?With the advent of Industrial Revolution, introduction of machinery, division of labour, specialization, expansion in the scale of production, greater business risks, diversification of managerial tasks, large capital requirement, etc. , etc. the one man control Is no more the rule of the world. The reason is that ‘one man’ Is not big enough to manage everything. The basic functions of business i, e. , buying, selling, advertising, accounting, insurance, credit, personal management etc cannot be successfully performed by one man.He cannot be expert in all these areas. In addition to this, one man can provide a limited amount of capital for establish and operating a business. His risk bearing capacity is ‘also limited. In the present age of competition and technological advancement, the single proprietor has to seek the aid of other persons, managers, secretaries, advisers, consultants etc. He now is one man among many, though perhaps he is the most important one. The one man control is the best in the world It that one man is big enough to manage everything does not seem to be feasible. The sole trading business is confined now to small scale sector. Suitability of sole proprietorship The sole proprietorship from of organization is existing and competing quite successfully with other forms of organizations like partnership, Joint Stock Company. There are many reasons for it. Sole proprietorship is the most ancient form of business enterprise. If has a weight of tradition behind it. Moreover it is good to experiment with it. The circumstances favorable to sole proprietorship form of organization are: a) Where Market Is Local When the market for a good or service is local, the scale of business opera will be small. The amount of capital required will also be less. Under such circumstances, the sole proprietorship is considered the most suitable from of organization. For example most of the retail trading is controlled by the sole traders. (b) When Personal Contract With Customers is Required There are certain businesses where goods or services are provided according to the individual tastes or liking of the customers.For example in the beauty parlours, the tailoring shops, cafeterias etc the sole proprietor has a direct link with his customers. He provides the goods and caters to the individual tastes of the customers. So in al these and other similar businesses, sole proprietorship is the most popular and suitable form. (c) Where One Likes, Being His Own Boss There are many owners who cannot work w other persons or under some one else. They want to work hard and succeed in business.Being one own boss and keeping all the profits with himself has a special attraction to run the business individually. (d) Where Promptness is Required in Decision Making There are businesses where immediate decisions is required as warranted by the situation. The businessman has no time to consult others. Far example, the prices of the shares change every rapidly in the stack exchange market. The businessman has to take prompt decisions. In such businesses where demand and prices of goods change quickly, sole proprietorship form of business is most suitable

Macbeth Tragism Essays - Characters In Macbeth,

Macbeth Tragism Macbeth's vaulting ambition, though it is what brings him to his height of power, it is also what leads him to his downfall. Vaulting Ambition is Macbeth's only flaw; it disables him to achieve his utmost goals and forces him to face his fate. Without this ambition, though, Macbeth never would have been able to achieve his power as King of Scotland or have been able to carry out his evil deeds. In these instances, ambition helped Macbeth do what he wanted to do. But, consequently, Macbeth's ambition has another face and is what leads him to his tragic downfall. Had he not been so enveloped with becoming King and remaining powerful, he would not have continued to kill innocent people in order to keep his position. It was because of these killings and his overbearing attitude that caused him to be overthrown and killed himself. Macbeth, at the beginning of the play seems to be a very noble person. He is characterized as being very loyal and honorable. He fights in the battle against Norway which proves his loyalty, then he is appointed Thane of Cawdor which proves that he is honorable in the eyes of royalty. However, as soon as the witches spark ambition in him, he is no longer trustworthy and becomes evil and deceiving. Even before he reaches his home, thoughts of murder creep into his head and he is overcome with the desire to be powerful. The prince of Cumberland: that is a step on which I must not fall down, or else oerleap, for in my way it lies. Stars, hide your fires, let not light see my black and deep desires, the eye wink at the hand. Yet let that be, which the eye fears when it is done to see (Shakespeare 21). At this point in the play, Macbeth's ambition starts to come into view. The seed has been planted, and there is no turning back. Macbeth becomes bloodthirsty and powerstricken forcing himself further and further into a web of ambition from which he is unable to detatch himself. Macbeth's ambition is what allowed him to become powerful. Without ambition, it is impossible to achieve goals. Therefore, ambition is what allowed Macbeth to overcome his obstacles and come closer to his final goals. As soon as he developed the trait of vaulting ambition, Macbeth is able to make his life fall into place exactly the way he wants it to. He first murders Duncan so that he will become king. Macbeth's ambition is directly the cause of this tragic incident. This murder is in cold evil blood by Macbeth's own hand; at this point he starts seeking his future on his own and will overcome any obstacles in his way. Then, Macbeth ventures on even farther to protect his crown. He proceeds in his evil plans by killing Banquo. This is the climax of the play as well as the height of Macbeth's vualting ambition. Macbeth, up to this point, is almost drunk with his own power and ambition. He does not even hesitate to make rash decisions. He is obsessed with reigning as king, but does not realize that what he is doing to make himself more powerful is actually leading him to a tragic and fatal downfall."Ruthless seeking after power by Macbeth, urged on by his wife, is the tragic flaw that causes his downfall" (Shakespeare, Themes 162). First of all, he resorts to spying on Macduff and makes the rash decision to seize his castle. "Seize upon Fife, give to th'edge o'th'sword His wife, his babes, and all infortunate souls that trace him in his line" (Shakespeare 107). This causes Macbeth to seem tyrannical and results in more people turning against him. He is only interested in himself and his power, but does not even take into consideration that his actions are causing him to be less powerful. Macbeth, while trying to stay powerful, also becomes paranoid. He never feels like he is at his height of power, and therefore feels like others were out to take his power away from him. Macbeth, then goes to whatever lengths he can to stay powerful. He murders numerous people which causes King Edward of England to organize troops to overthrow him. Anything that happens to Macbeth is traced back to his vaulting ambition. This ambition is to be blamed for his great power, as well as his downfall. Macbeths entire character is an example of this quote by Shakespeare: "The heavens themselves, the planets and

The Influence of Farming on the IS Economy

The Influence of Farming on the IS Economy From the nations earliest days, farming has held a crucial place in the American economy and culture. Farmers play an important role in any society, of course, since they feed people. But farming has been particularly valued in the United States. Early in the nations life, farmers were seen as exemplifying economic virtues such as hard work, initiative, and self-sufficiency. Moreover, many Americans - particularly immigrants who may have never held any land and did not have ownership over their own labor or products - found that owning a farm was a ticket into the American economic system. Even people who moved out of farming often used land as a commodity that could easily be bought and sold, opening another avenue for profit. The American Farmers Role in the US Economy The American farmer has generally been quite successful at producing food. Indeed, sometimes his success has created his biggest problem: the agricultural sector has suffered periodic bouts of overproduction that have depressed prices. For long periods, the  government helped smooth out the worst of these episodes. But in recent years, such assistance has declined, reflecting governments desire to cut its own spending, as well as the farm sectors reduced political influence. American farmers owe their ability to produce large yields to a number of factors. For one thing, they work under extremely favorable natural conditions. The American Midwest has some of the richest soil in the world. Rainfall is modest to abundant over most areas of the country; rivers and underground water permit extensive irrigation where it is not. Large capital investments and increasing use of highly trained labor also have contributed to the success of American agriculture. It is not unusual to see todays farmers driving tractors with air-conditioned cabs hitched to very expensive, fast-moving plows, tillers, and harvesters. Biotechnology has led to the development of seeds that are disease- and drought-resistant. Fertilizers and pesticides are commonly used (too commonly, according to some environmentalists). Computers track farm operations, and even space technology is utilized to find the best places to plant and fertilize crops. Whats more, researchers periodically introduce new food products and new methods for raising them, such as artificial ponds to raise fish. Farmers have not repealed some of the fundamental laws of nature, however. They still must contend with forces beyond their control - most notably the weather. Despite its generally benign weather, North America also experiences frequent floods and droughts. Changes in the weather give agriculture its own economic cycles, often unrelated to the general economy. Government Assistance to Farmers Calls for government assistance come when factors work against the farmers success; at times, when different factors converge to push farms over the edge into failure, pleas for help are particularly intense. In the 1930s, for instance, overproduction, bad weather, and the Great Depression combined to present what seemed like insurmountable odds to many American farmers. The government responded with sweeping agricultural reforms - most notably, a system of price supports. This large-scale intervention, which was unprecedented, continued until the late 1990s, when Congress dismantled many of the support programs. By the late 1990s, the U.S. farm economy continued its own cycle of ups and downs, booming in 1996 and 1997, then entering another slump in the subsequent two years. But it was a different farm economy than had existed at the centurys start. - This article is adapted from the book Outline of the U.S. Economy by Conte and Carr and has been adapted with permission from the U.S. Department of State.

Anthropology of Tattoos

He repeated this several times as a ceremonial pot was filled with gathering soot from the burning fire. After the artist finished his tedious design, he rubbed soot from the pot bottom deep into the slits, planting the bacteria that would infect the skin, raising the scars into their meaningful design. She felt accomplished that she withstood the agonizing pain while other members of her clan could not. Her newly inherited body art signified the birth of her first son, and left her with a renewed sense of beauty. This is the way of life common to people indigenous to the motherland of Africa. Scarification, however, is not the only form of body art that is used. Body painting, tattooing, and branding are all similar forms of body art, which can be found in Africa and other cultures throughout the world. The word â€Å"tattoo† comes from the Tahitian word â€Å"tattau†, which means â€Å"to mark†. Tattoos have evolved from being symbols of punishment that were given to identify criminals and slaves in the early ninth-century Chinese culture, into a pop-culture trend of using he skin as â€Å"a way of describing the exotic uncivilized other† within ourselves (Schildkrout 2004:324). For centuries, the body has been used as a â€Å"visible way of defining individual identity and cultural difference† (Schildkrout 2004:319). This cultural difference becomes apparent when studying the evolution of body art over time, especially when focusing on the differences between the Western and Non-Western cultures. People have been adorning their body with tattoos and piercing for centuries, but until recently, the thought of tattoos in ancient Egypt had been pushed aside. It has now been discovered that, without a doubt, tattoos did exist in that time period. Although miniscule, a group of enormously important tattooed mummies serve to help prove this point (Bianchi 1988:21). The first mummy to be discovered was one f a woman named Amunet, whose mummy was found in an excellent state of preservation, â€Å"most likely due to the fact that she served as a priestess of the goddess Harthor at Thebes during Dynasty XI†(Bianchi 1988:22). The tattoos on her body were comprised of a pattern of dots and dashes in an elliptical shape on her lower abdomen. The thighs and arms adorned the identical parallel lines of the aforementioned pattern. Two more women mummies, who were discovered and believed to be from the same time period, also had similar tattoos on their lower abdomen (Bianchi 1988:22). This group of woman represents an exclusive group of Egyptians who received tattoos in that time period, because there is no other evidence that shows tattoos to be a part of the Egyptian culture until the time of the Middle Kingdom. These abstract patterns associated with ritualistic tattooing survived into the New Kingdom. The Egyptians, more then likely, borrowed a form of tattooing from the Nubian civilization. Unlike the Nubians, whose purpose for tattooing is unknown, â€Å"the Egyptians appear to have regarded the tattoo as one of several vehicles by which the procreative powers of the deceased could be revived† (Bianchi 1988:27). Substantiation proposes that only women were associated with the decorating of their bodies and the ritualistic activities that went along with it. The art of tattooing began with the grouping of bluish or black dots and/or dashes forming abstract geometric patterns; that system of body art lasted for over two thousand years in ancient Egypt. Just like other ideas and goods, the idea of tattooing began to travel to several different societies, and has evolved into extremely different forms of art all over the world. In northeastern Zambia, the Tabwa â€Å"once covered themselves from head to foot with scarification† (Roberts 1988:41). The women of the Tabwa began receiving elaborate marks on their face, chest, and backs when they were young girls; it sometimes was continued at other points in a woman’s life (Roberts 1988:43) such as courting rituals and for woman wishing to bear a child. Male sculptors would trace designs and make incisions on the lesser intimate parts of the body; they left the rest for the women to do. ‘Tabwa women used razors to slit skin [that had been] plucked up with a fishhook or arrowhead. These incisions were then rubbed with soot from a pot bottom, an irritant that produced the desired raised cicatrices† (Roberts 1988:44). There were several reasons that this tradition was done, different to every age and gender in the tribe. Young women went through this process in order to achieve a state of perfection, which was required for those wanting to marry and have children (Roberts 1988:45). Scarification is a form of body art that was used in several tribes because according to their customs â€Å"beauty is not physically innate, but rather a function of the girl’s inscriptions† (Roberts 1988:45). Not only the Tabwa, scarification was used in such tribes as the Ga’anda and the Tiv; all the tribes have distinctly different purposes for doing this, but the process and effect of the body are the same. Another form of body art is body painting, which the people of the Southeast Nuba begin at a young age; but the meanings, and time frame from when they begin decorating the body are very different between males and females. The males paint themselves from the ages of 12 to 27 (Faris 1988:31). Typically, they only paint during the down time after the harvest season and before the next years planting begins. This is the time that the males are less involved in mandatory and productive activities; they spend their supplementary time with festive activities such as dance and sport participation. The restrictions placed on the men by their age, most importantly deal with the color that they use on their body—for example â€Å" only the older age groups are eligible to use the greatest elaboration in color, including the deep black and yellow [colors, that are] prohibited to younger grades†(Faris 1988:32). The change in elaboration allowed on the body does not coincide with any physiological changes, rather, it corresponds with changes â€Å"in productive status or sport† (Faris 1988:32). As they move up in grades from young laborers that answer to the elders, to mature men that own their own property, farm and family, their elaborate painting ability increases. The elders though, do not decorate their bodies; rather, they delegate and lead rituals for the younger men and enforce the rules of allowed color use. Therefore, the male body painting shows their progression thru ones life stages. The women of Southeast Nuba, â€Å"from the age of six years, until consummation of marriage, oil and ochre [their bodies] daily, in colors [that are] appropriate to their patri-clan section† (Faris 1988:34). After childbirth, they may continue to wear some oil and ochre on their shoulders. The personal body art of women is strictly related to the physiological changes that occur as a women goes through life, and are fixed around body scarification as a way of showing her changes. A woman’s scarification is so important, that â€Å"if a husband refuses to pay for a scarring specialist, a woman may seek a lover who will do so, and her first marriage will end† (Faris 1988:35). Unlike the males elaborate body art, a woman’s body art is simple, but it accumulates over her life-span and is very standardized, while a male’s body art is constantly changing. Body painting, tattooing and scarification thus far had been tools used by individuals to beautify their body and elevate their status within their tribe; this is not the case with all societies. In several other cultures, tattoos have been used in a form of branding, which is quite the opposite. Though tattooing and branding are â€Å"similar in that both involve the insertion of pigments under the skin to create permanent marks†, branding is implemented in order to lower an individuals status, to punish for crimes committed, to identify slaves, but most importantly, to eliminate personal identity (Schildkrout 2004:323). â€Å"The immutable alteration of human skin by branding needs to be considered in relation to, but ought not be confused with, tattooing† (Bianchi 1988:27). Two recent studies originating in South Africa elaborate on this subject, reporting on the political influence of tattooing â€Å"as a means of social control† (Schildkrout 2004:330). They site examples from Zambia in which a medical practitioner travels around to villages â€Å"in which witch craft accusations have been common†¦to inoculate people against people against witch craft† (Schildkrout 2004:331). The villagers would â€Å"submit to bodily inspections†, they were then treated â€Å"by getting numbers tattooed on their arms† (Schildkrout 2004:331). This is disturbingly reminiscent of Nazi concentration camps when an unfathomable number of Jewish people lost their personal identities and became known as only a number in the system to be disposed of. This â€Å"symbolic denial of personhood† served as a system â€Å"of control and surveillance† (Schildkrout 2004:323). This system of control was also imposed by â€Å"authoritarian regimes† in Southeast Asia (Schildkrout 2004:323). The Zhou and Ming Dynasties branded criminals as a form of punishment with â€Å"extensive, often full-body tattoos, with elaborate pictorial imagery as well as written inscriptions† (Schildkrout 2004:324) portraying their crime. This form of tattooing is definitely contrary to traditional methods. Similarly in Brazil, branding was used to mark convicts by the penal authorities. Penal tattoos derived their power from subjugation of the marked convicts. The humiliation of being visibly branded was a significant component of the convict’s punishment. In an act of resistance, those that had been branded â€Å"were known to reclaim their bodies by writing over the inscriptions or by displaying them in new social situations† (Schildkrout 2004:324). The branded, therefore, became the empowered, restoring the function of the tattoo to being personally-motivated. This personal motivation is perhaps most notable in Western cultures, specifically North America. In America, the Native Americans used body painting in many ways, usually connected with ethnic identity, social roles or marital status (Rubin 1988:179). The Natives also used the body as a canvas in ritualistic ceremonies, on warriors going into battle and for the beautification of their women. When the Europeans discovered America, they brought with them slaves from Africa and they introduced branding of the slaves into the American culture. After the civil war, when the slaves had been freed, branding was still embedded in American culture through groups of people including gang members and convicts. Though â€Å"branding is often associated with involuntary marking and the denial of personhood†, it has also â€Å"been adopted in contemporary Western body culture as an assertion of group identity, for example in college fraternities† (Schildkrout 2004:323). Tattoos were also prevalent in other parts of America, including Alaska. Among the Eskimos â€Å"[t]he function of these art forms [was] – essentially manifesting one’s place or role within the hierarchy of hunting life† (Gritton 1988:190). With the introduction and adaptation of the western civilization in Alaskan culture, â€Å"the marks of a hunter or hunter’s wife served no purpose in their new lives and were understandably abandoned† (Gritton 1988:190). The function of body art and tattooing has been Americanized, evolving from its native origins to incorporate self expression. This self expression has mushroomed from a manor of identifying oneself to a way of gaining attention through shock value. Though ever-changing, all forms of body art mentioned play enormous roles in the lives of people. Certain non-Western cultures are based around the ability to use skin as a visible way of defining status or bettering their self-image, in order to attract companions. So the artists who are allowed to perform the act of adorning bodies with different designs are regarded as having a very important place in the society. They are â€Å"scarring specialist† (Faris 1988:35), â€Å"body artists† (Drewal 1988:84), but most importantly, they are known as â€Å"[the] one-who-creates- art† (Drewal 1988:84). In the non-Native American culture, however, the general attitude towards tattoo artist in present-day American culture is less than appreciative. Extreme critics even characterize tattooist as opportunist, exclusively seeking monetary gain (Sanders 1988:229). â€Å"The tattooist interest in artistry and control is often in conflict with his profit orientation†, revealing the major flaw within the American society (Sanders 1988:229). This is the major difference in western and non-western cultures. Body tattoos in western society are an object to be purchased. Americans obtain tattoos in the same manner that they acquire a new Louis Vuitton handbag. They purchase them as accessories, which is in stark contrast to the non-western cultures, who acquire tattoos as an essential ritual in their society. With this is mind, the process in which American’s purchases body art seems slightly ridiculous. Tattoo artists often complain of the unwillingness of customers to spend the quoted amount of money for â€Å"a tattoo [they] are going to wear for the rest of [their] life† (Sanders 1988:229). It is more acceptable in American culture to invest in short term materialistic purchases, therefore the legitimate tattoo artists are constantly being monitored and regimented under strict laws imposed by the government. Despite the absurdity of the purchasing process, the reasoning that propels the American society to obtain tattoos is just as flawed. Some reasons people give to explain permanently marking their skin include, â€Å"they were drunk, it’s a macho thing, to fit in with a crowd or even worse, for no reason at all† (DeMello 1995:42). Western society seems to have a complete disregard for the spiritual origins of body art. Tattoo artist are even witness to clients’ apathy, avoiding â€Å"working on people who are obviously under the influence of alcohol† (Sanders 1988:225). Where once there was a ceremonious celebration deeply rooted in spiritualism, in American society the only ritualistic ceremony is the receiving of a piece of paper on how to care for the recently acquired body art. This apathetic attitude of Americans is perhaps derived from the renouncing majority of the population. This bias stems from â€Å"very early ‘regulations’ [including] Moses’ remarks in Leviticus 19:28 forbidding any cuttings in the flesh or the printing of any marks† (Armstrong 2005:39). Since tattoos â€Å"were not sanctioned by the church† the profile for the tattooed archetype became unconventional (Schildkrout 2004:325). Christian belief has been adapted to the masses, forcing those who are tattooed into rebellion. The majority of people adopting body art include â€Å"bikers, convicts, and other ‘low lives’† (DeMello 1995:40). In Western society â€Å"the idea that the unmarked body as a sign of God’s work was linked to the Protestant reformation† and â€Å"the idea that body markings were a sign of savagery goes back even earlier† ( Schildkrout 2004:324). This is ironic considering tattoos in earlier cultures signified positions of high status. Perhaps the only entity that ties these drastic cultures together is the desire to increase their inherited beauty. â€Å"If the body is – metaphorically – a site of inscription to various degrees for various theorist, then cosmetic surgery can be seen, at one level, as an example of the literal and explicit enactment of this process of inscription† ( Schildkrout 2004:320), which is also seen in the aforementioned tribes with the rituals of scarification. DeMello also agrees that along with tattooing and piericing, that cosmetic surgery is seen as a form of â€Å"body modification† (DeMello 1995:37). â€Å"Not only does the tattooed skin negotiate between the individual and society and between different social groups, but also mediates relations between persons and spirits, the human and the divine† (Schildkrout 2004:321). Body art is a tradition that extends throughout the barriers of the world and although the forms in which they are found may be different, the idea of using your body as a canvas is universal. Although recently, several anthropologists agreed and have begun to examine body art more closely, looking at it â€Å"as a microcosm of society† (Schildkrout 2004:328), Roberts still believes that â€Å"there can be no ultimate explanation of symbolism† (Roberts 1988:51). He claims that â€Å"the blazes on trees in the Ndembu forest will remain many years after their purpose and meaning are forgotten. So it is with other inscriptions† (Roberts 1988:51). This is exemplified in the woman who endured the agonizing pain of her scarification to instigate a new chapter in her life. Nevertheless, soon after her body is placed into the ground, her skin will no longer be a visible indication of who she once was. She will become a memory and her body will no longer be used as a canvas. Anthropology of Tattoos He repeated this several times as a ceremonial pot was filled with gathering soot from the burning fire. After the artist finished his tedious design, he rubbed soot from the pot bottom deep into the slits, planting the bacteria that would infect the skin, raising the scars into their meaningful design. She felt accomplished that she withstood the agonizing pain while other members of her clan could not. Her newly inherited body art signified the birth of her first son, and left her with a renewed sense of beauty. This is the way of life common to people indigenous to the motherland of Africa. Scarification, however, is not the only form of body art that is used. Body painting, tattooing, and branding are all similar forms of body art, which can be found in Africa and other cultures throughout the world. The word â€Å"tattoo† comes from the Tahitian word â€Å"tattau†, which means â€Å"to mark†. Tattoos have evolved from being symbols of punishment that were given to identify criminals and slaves in the early ninth-century Chinese culture, into a pop-culture trend of using he skin as â€Å"a way of describing the exotic uncivilized other† within ourselves (Schildkrout 2004:324). For centuries, the body has been used as a â€Å"visible way of defining individual identity and cultural difference† (Schildkrout 2004:319). This cultural difference becomes apparent when studying the evolution of body art over time, especially when focusing on the differences between the Western and Non-Western cultures. People have been adorning their body with tattoos and piercing for centuries, but until recently, the thought of tattoos in ancient Egypt had been pushed aside. It has now been discovered that, without a doubt, tattoos did exist in that time period. Although miniscule, a group of enormously important tattooed mummies serve to help prove this point (Bianchi 1988:21). The first mummy to be discovered was one f a woman named Amunet, whose mummy was found in an excellent state of preservation, â€Å"most likely due to the fact that she served as a priestess of the goddess Harthor at Thebes during Dynasty XI†(Bianchi 1988:22). The tattoos on her body were comprised of a pattern of dots and dashes in an elliptical shape on her lower abdomen. The thighs and arms adorned the identical parallel lines of the aforementioned pattern. Two more women mummies, who were discovered and believed to be from the same time period, also had similar tattoos on their lower abdomen (Bianchi 1988:22). This group of woman represents an exclusive group of Egyptians who received tattoos in that time period, because there is no other evidence that shows tattoos to be a part of the Egyptian culture until the time of the Middle Kingdom. These abstract patterns associated with ritualistic tattooing survived into the New Kingdom. The Egyptians, more then likely, borrowed a form of tattooing from the Nubian civilization. Unlike the Nubians, whose purpose for tattooing is unknown, â€Å"the Egyptians appear to have regarded the tattoo as one of several vehicles by which the procreative powers of the deceased could be revived† (Bianchi 1988:27). Substantiation proposes that only women were associated with the decorating of their bodies and the ritualistic activities that went along with it. The art of tattooing began with the grouping of bluish or black dots and/or dashes forming abstract geometric patterns; that system of body art lasted for over two thousand years in ancient Egypt. Just like other ideas and goods, the idea of tattooing began to travel to several different societies, and has evolved into extremely different forms of art all over the world. In northeastern Zambia, the Tabwa â€Å"once covered themselves from head to foot with scarification† (Roberts 1988:41). The women of the Tabwa began receiving elaborate marks on their face, chest, and backs when they were young girls; it sometimes was continued at other points in a woman’s life (Roberts 1988:43) such as courting rituals and for woman wishing to bear a child. Male sculptors would trace designs and make incisions on the lesser intimate parts of the body; they left the rest for the women to do. ‘Tabwa women used razors to slit skin [that had been] plucked up with a fishhook or arrowhead. These incisions were then rubbed with soot from a pot bottom, an irritant that produced the desired raised cicatrices† (Roberts 1988:44). There were several reasons that this tradition was done, different to every age and gender in the tribe. Young women went through this process in order to achieve a state of perfection, which was required for those wanting to marry and have children (Roberts 1988:45). Scarification is a form of body art that was used in several tribes because according to their customs â€Å"beauty is not physically innate, but rather a function of the girl’s inscriptions† (Roberts 1988:45). Not only the Tabwa, scarification was used in such tribes as the Ga’anda and the Tiv; all the tribes have distinctly different purposes for doing this, but the process and effect of the body are the same. Another form of body art is body painting, which the people of the Southeast Nuba begin at a young age; but the meanings, and time frame from when they begin decorating the body are very different between males and females. The males paint themselves from the ages of 12 to 27 (Faris 1988:31). Typically, they only paint during the down time after the harvest season and before the next years planting begins. This is the time that the males are less involved in mandatory and productive activities; they spend their supplementary time with festive activities such as dance and sport participation. The restrictions placed on the men by their age, most importantly deal with the color that they use on their body—for example â€Å" only the older age groups are eligible to use the greatest elaboration in color, including the deep black and yellow [colors, that are] prohibited to younger grades†(Faris 1988:32). The change in elaboration allowed on the body does not coincide with any physiological changes, rather, it corresponds with changes â€Å"in productive status or sport† (Faris 1988:32). As they move up in grades from young laborers that answer to the elders, to mature men that own their own property, farm and family, their elaborate painting ability increases. The elders though, do not decorate their bodies; rather, they delegate and lead rituals for the younger men and enforce the rules of allowed color use. Therefore, the male body painting shows their progression thru ones life stages. The women of Southeast Nuba, â€Å"from the age of six years, until consummation of marriage, oil and ochre [their bodies] daily, in colors [that are] appropriate to their patri-clan section† (Faris 1988:34). After childbirth, they may continue to wear some oil and ochre on their shoulders. The personal body art of women is strictly related to the physiological changes that occur as a women goes through life, and are fixed around body scarification as a way of showing her changes. A woman’s scarification is so important, that â€Å"if a husband refuses to pay for a scarring specialist, a woman may seek a lover who will do so, and her first marriage will end† (Faris 1988:35). Unlike the males elaborate body art, a woman’s body art is simple, but it accumulates over her life-span and is very standardized, while a male’s body art is constantly changing. Body painting, tattooing and scarification thus far had been tools used by individuals to beautify their body and elevate their status within their tribe; this is not the case with all societies. In several other cultures, tattoos have been used in a form of branding, which is quite the opposite. Though tattooing and branding are â€Å"similar in that both involve the insertion of pigments under the skin to create permanent marks†, branding is implemented in order to lower an individuals status, to punish for crimes committed, to identify slaves, but most importantly, to eliminate personal identity (Schildkrout 2004:323). â€Å"The immutable alteration of human skin by branding needs to be considered in relation to, but ought not be confused with, tattooing† (Bianchi 1988:27). Two recent studies originating in South Africa elaborate on this subject, reporting on the political influence of tattooing â€Å"as a means of social control† (Schildkrout 2004:330). They site examples from Zambia in which a medical practitioner travels around to villages â€Å"in which witch craft accusations have been common†¦to inoculate people against people against witch craft† (Schildkrout 2004:331). The villagers would â€Å"submit to bodily inspections†, they were then treated â€Å"by getting numbers tattooed on their arms† (Schildkrout 2004:331). This is disturbingly reminiscent of Nazi concentration camps when an unfathomable number of Jewish people lost their personal identities and became known as only a number in the system to be disposed of. This â€Å"symbolic denial of personhood† served as a system â€Å"of control and surveillance† (Schildkrout 2004:323). This system of control was also imposed by â€Å"authoritarian regimes† in Southeast Asia (Schildkrout 2004:323). The Zhou and Ming Dynasties branded criminals as a form of punishment with â€Å"extensive, often full-body tattoos, with elaborate pictorial imagery as well as written inscriptions† (Schildkrout 2004:324) portraying their crime. This form of tattooing is definitely contrary to traditional methods. Similarly in Brazil, branding was used to mark convicts by the penal authorities. Penal tattoos derived their power from subjugation of the marked convicts. The humiliation of being visibly branded was a significant component of the convict’s punishment. In an act of resistance, those that had been branded â€Å"were known to reclaim their bodies by writing over the inscriptions or by displaying them in new social situations† (Schildkrout 2004:324). The branded, therefore, became the empowered, restoring the function of the tattoo to being personally-motivated. This personal motivation is perhaps most notable in Western cultures, specifically North America. In America, the Native Americans used body painting in many ways, usually connected with ethnic identity, social roles or marital status (Rubin 1988:179). The Natives also used the body as a canvas in ritualistic ceremonies, on warriors going into battle and for the beautification of their women. When the Europeans discovered America, they brought with them slaves from Africa and they introduced branding of the slaves into the American culture. After the civil war, when the slaves had been freed, branding was still embedded in American culture through groups of people including gang members and convicts. Though â€Å"branding is often associated with involuntary marking and the denial of personhood†, it has also â€Å"been adopted in contemporary Western body culture as an assertion of group identity, for example in college fraternities† (Schildkrout 2004:323). Tattoos were also prevalent in other parts of America, including Alaska. Among the Eskimos â€Å"[t]he function of these art forms [was] – essentially manifesting one’s place or role within the hierarchy of hunting life† (Gritton 1988:190). With the introduction and adaptation of the western civilization in Alaskan culture, â€Å"the marks of a hunter or hunter’s wife served no purpose in their new lives and were understandably abandoned† (Gritton 1988:190). The function of body art and tattooing has been Americanized, evolving from its native origins to incorporate self expression. This self expression has mushroomed from a manor of identifying oneself to a way of gaining attention through shock value. Though ever-changing, all forms of body art mentioned play enormous roles in the lives of people. Certain non-Western cultures are based around the ability to use skin as a visible way of defining status or bettering their self-image, in order to attract companions. So the artists who are allowed to perform the act of adorning bodies with different designs are regarded as having a very important place in the society. They are â€Å"scarring specialist† (Faris 1988:35), â€Å"body artists† (Drewal 1988:84), but most importantly, they are known as â€Å"[the] one-who-creates- art† (Drewal 1988:84). In the non-Native American culture, however, the general attitude towards tattoo artist in present-day American culture is less than appreciative. Extreme critics even characterize tattooist as opportunist, exclusively seeking monetary gain (Sanders 1988:229). â€Å"The tattooist interest in artistry and control is often in conflict with his profit orientation†, revealing the major flaw within the American society (Sanders 1988:229). This is the major difference in western and non-western cultures. Body tattoos in western society are an object to be purchased. Americans obtain tattoos in the same manner that they acquire a new Louis Vuitton handbag. They purchase them as accessories, which is in stark contrast to the non-western cultures, who acquire tattoos as an essential ritual in their society. With this is mind, the process in which American’s purchases body art seems slightly ridiculous. Tattoo artists often complain of the unwillingness of customers to spend the quoted amount of money for â€Å"a tattoo [they] are going to wear for the rest of [their] life† (Sanders 1988:229). It is more acceptable in American culture to invest in short term materialistic purchases, therefore the legitimate tattoo artists are constantly being monitored and regimented under strict laws imposed by the government. Despite the absurdity of the purchasing process, the reasoning that propels the American society to obtain tattoos is just as flawed. Some reasons people give to explain permanently marking their skin include, â€Å"they were drunk, it’s a macho thing, to fit in with a crowd or even worse, for no reason at all† (DeMello 1995:42). Western society seems to have a complete disregard for the spiritual origins of body art. Tattoo artist are even witness to clients’ apathy, avoiding â€Å"working on people who are obviously under the influence of alcohol† (Sanders 1988:225). Where once there was a ceremonious celebration deeply rooted in spiritualism, in American society the only ritualistic ceremony is the receiving of a piece of paper on how to care for the recently acquired body art. This apathetic attitude of Americans is perhaps derived from the renouncing majority of the population. This bias stems from â€Å"very early ‘regulations’ [including] Moses’ remarks in Leviticus 19:28 forbidding any cuttings in the flesh or the printing of any marks† (Armstrong 2005:39). Since tattoos â€Å"were not sanctioned by the church† the profile for the tattooed archetype became unconventional (Schildkrout 2004:325). Christian belief has been adapted to the masses, forcing those who are tattooed into rebellion. The majority of people adopting body art include â€Å"bikers, convicts, and other ‘low lives’† (DeMello 1995:40). In Western society â€Å"the idea that the unmarked body as a sign of God’s work was linked to the Protestant reformation† and â€Å"the idea that body markings were a sign of savagery goes back even earlier† ( Schildkrout 2004:324). This is ironic considering tattoos in earlier cultures signified positions of high status. Perhaps the only entity that ties these drastic cultures together is the desire to increase their inherited beauty. â€Å"If the body is – metaphorically – a site of inscription to various degrees for various theorist, then cosmetic surgery can be seen, at one level, as an example of the literal and explicit enactment of this process of inscription† ( Schildkrout 2004:320), which is also seen in the aforementioned tribes with the rituals of scarification. DeMello also agrees that along with tattooing and piericing, that cosmetic surgery is seen as a form of â€Å"body modification† (DeMello 1995:37). â€Å"Not only does the tattooed skin negotiate between the individual and society and between different social groups, but also mediates relations between persons and spirits, the human and the divine† (Schildkrout 2004:321). Body art is a tradition that extends throughout the barriers of the world and although the forms in which they are found may be different, the idea of using your body as a canvas is universal. Although recently, several anthropologists agreed and have begun to examine body art more closely, looking at it â€Å"as a microcosm of society† (Schildkrout 2004:328), Roberts still believes that â€Å"there can be no ultimate explanation of symbolism† (Roberts 1988:51). He claims that â€Å"the blazes on trees in the Ndembu forest will remain many years after their purpose and meaning are forgotten. So it is with other inscriptions† (Roberts 1988:51). This is exemplified in the woman who endured the agonizing pain of her scarification to instigate a new chapter in her life. Nevertheless, soon after her body is placed into the ground, her skin will no longer be a visible indication of who she once was. She will become a memory and her body will no longer be used as a canvas.

Tax Law in Qatar Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Tax Law in Qatar - Research Paper Example The new Tax Law provided new views of the income. While the old system was more concerned with profits, the new law focused more on types and definition of income. According to the new law, gross income covers total income as well as profits from other sources. Additionally, the law indicates that the taxable income is arrived at by subtracting losses made from the past years from the net income. Other sources of income that the new law includes in the gross income includes income attained from the sale of shares, income from the sale of shares in Qatar companies, interest on the loan provided by Qatar banks, and income obtained from exploration services. The new tax law provided some notable exemptions. Qatari citizens who were not residing in Qatar were now eligible to pay tax on the income derived in Qatar. Residents of the Gulf Cooperation Council GCC States, as well as companies fully owned by GCC residents, are treated in the same way as Qatari companies and citizens as far as tax matters are concerned (Avi-Yonah and Slemrod, 2002). One of the key aspects of the new tax is that it still allowed the GCC companies and nationals to enjoy the same exemptions as Qatar citizens. The exemptions will have the impact on the GCC companies (Jeffs, 2008). For instance, a GCC firm that trades in Qatar but does not have a permanent location will be subjected to a specified withholding tax. One of the most notable changes in Qatar tax system was the tax rates. With the elimination of the marginal system that employed rates of 0 to 35%, the taxpayers now pay a flat rate of 10%. While large companies may welcome this strategy, it is may negatively affect the smaller taxpayers (Mohamed, 2014). For instance, in the old tax system, an individual with a taxable income of 400,000 QR would pay 10% on income ranging between 100,000 and 400,000 QR.

Forensic Science Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Forensic Science - Essay Example Experiments are then performed to measure the accuracy of these hypotheses and they are repeated several times in order to determine whether or not the phenomena behaves according to the predictions laid out by the hypotheses i.e. whether the tests are predictable (Wudka 1998). Some domains of inquiry tend to come under certain theories which permit the structuring of specific hypotheses. Almost all fields of inquiry share the common ideal that the manner of gathering data and acquiring new knowledge must be unbiased and objective. This leads to accurate observation, data gathering and interpretation of results. Scientific method also requires that the data is documented, shared and accessed in order for other researchers and scientists to conduct their own experiments independently and reproduce the results. This enables the statistical measurement of data and verify their reliability. Forensic science is a scientific method of collecting and scrutinizing evidence. It is a science that is applied to legal issues. It involves the testing of different parameters and associated references to the background information about the subject in question in order to arrive at a conclusion (Ellen 2005 p.3). Forensic scientists are specialized professionals who involve themselves in accident or crime scene investigation. They use their skills by observing, recognizing, identifying and individualizing the physical evidence available at the scene, then go about attempting to reconstruct the sequence of events that took place so that the police, lawyers and the courts can fully unravel in detail the crime or accident. Observation and Description in Forensics As in other fields of scientific study, forensic scientists rely greatly on scientific method. The initial first step is the observation and collection of information and data most of which is physical. Forensic scientists generally search for data at the scene or in the laboratory. This data includes physical evidence that is to be recognized as being crucial to the investigation, protected from the elements to avoid contamination and collected. Crimes are solved using pathological examinations of crime scene data such as fingerprints, footprints, palm prints, blood stains, soil, bodily fluids, plant and animal matter and hair samples. Apart from this handwriting and typed samples, including ink and paper are also studied as are impressions and questionable documents. Insects present at the scene, maybe collected and in a lab examined by a forensic entomologist. Where weapons are involved, bullet remnants, direction and range of the shot and other ballistics are studied to determine the origins of the shooting. In addition, voice identification techniques are also used to ascertain the criminal's identity. Impression evidence is also vital and can come in two-dimensional or three-dimensional forms such as shoeprints (Genge 2002 p.58). All evidence is carefully cordoned off from possible contamination, collected and placed in plastic bags or boxes, labeled with time, date and location and signed by the crime scene personnel. These and other items of physical evidence are investigated to determine that a crime has occurred and also to ascertain the criminal's Modus Operandi and establish a connection between the suspect and the victim. The other goal is to place the persons, both

American Immigration History Essay Example for Free

American Immigration History Essay American immigration history can be viewed in four epochs: the colonial period, the mid-19th century, the start of the 20th century, and post-1965. Each period brought distinct national groups, races and ethnicities to the United States. During the 17th century, approximately 175,000 Englishmen migrated to Colonial America.[11] Over half of all European immigrants to Colonial America during the 17th and 18th centuries arrived as indentured servants.[12] The mid-19th century saw mainly an influx from northern Europe; the early 20th-century mainly from Southern and Eastern Europe; post-1965 mostly from Latin America and Asia. Historians estimate that fewer than one million immigrants—perhaps as few as 400,000—crossed the Atlantic during the 17th and 18th centuries.[13] The 1790 Act limited naturalization to free white persons; it was expanded to include blacks in the 1860s and Asians in the 1950s.[14] In the early years of the United States, immigration was fewer than 8,000 people a year,[15] including French refugees from the slave revolt in Haiti. After 1820, immigration gradually increased. From 1836 to 1914, over 30 million Europeans migrated to the United States.[16] The death rate on these transatlantic voyages was high, during which one in seven travelers died.[17] In 1875, the nation passed its first immigration law, the Page Act of 1875.[18] The peak year of European immigration was in 1907, when 1,285,349 persons entered the country.[19] By 1910, 13.5 million immigrants were living in the United States.[20] In 1921, the Congress passed the Emergency Quota Act, followed by the Immigration Act of 1924. The 1924 Act was aimed at further restricting the Southern and Eastern Europeans, especially Jews, Italians, and Slavs, who had begun to enter the country in large numbers beginning in the 1890s.[21] Most of the European refugees fleeing the Nazis and World War II were barred from coming to the United States.[22] Immigration patterns of the 1930s were dominated by the Great Depression, which hit the U.S. hard and lasted over ten years there. In the final prosperous year, 1929, there were 279,678 immigrants recorded,[23] but in 1933, only 23,068 came to the U.S.[13] In the early 1930s, more people emigrated from the United States than to it.[24] The U.S. government sponsored a Mexican Repatriation program which was intended to encourage people to voluntarily move to Mexico, but thousands were deported against their will.[25] Altogether about 400,000 Mexicans were repatriated.[26] In the post-war era, the Justice Department  launched Operation Wetback, under which 1,075,168 Mexicans were deported in 1954.[27] First, our cities will not be flooded with a million immigrants annually. Under the proposed bill, the present level of immigration remains substantially the same. Secondly, the ethnic mix of this country will not be upset. Contrary to the charges in some quarters, [the bill] will not inundate America with immigrants from any one country or area, or the most populated and deprived nations of Africa and Asia. In the final analysis, the ethnic pattern of immigration under the proposed measure is not expected to change as sharply as the critics seem to think. — Ted Kennedy, chief Senate sponsor of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965.[28] The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, also known as the Hart-Cellar Act, abolished the system of national-origin quotas. By equalizing immigration policies, the act resulted in new immigration from non-European nations, which changed the ethnic make-up of the United States.[29] While European immigrants accounted for nearly 60% of the total foreign population in 1970, they accounted for only 15% in 2000.[30] Immigration doubled between 1965 and 1970, and again between 1970 and 1990.[31] In 1990, George H. W. Bush signed the Immigration Act of 1990,[32 ] which increased legal immigration to the United States by 40%.[33] Appointed by Bill Clinton,[34] the U.S. Commission on Immigration Reform recommended reducing legal immigration from about 800,000 people per year to approximately 550,000.[35] While an influx of new residents from different cultures presents some challenges, the United States has always been energized by its immigrant populations, said President Bill Clinton in 1998. America has constantly drawn strength and spirit from wave after wave of immigrants [] They have proved to be the most restless, the most adventurous, the most innovative, the most industrious of people.[36] An analysis of census data found that nearly eight million immigrants entered the United States from 2000 to 2005, more than in any other five-year period in the nations history; 3.7 million of them entered without papers.[37][38] Since 1986 Congress has passed seven amnesties for undocumented immigrants.[39] In 1986 president Ronald Reagan signed immigration reform that gave amnesty to 3 million undocumented immigrants in the country.[40] Hispanic immigrants were among the first victims of the late-2000s recession,[41] but since the recessions end in June 2009, immigrants posted a net gain of 656,000 jobs.[42] Over 1 million immigrants were granted legal residence in 2011. - Contemporary immigration Until the 1930s most legal immigrants were male. By the 1990s women accounted for just over half of all legal immigrants.[46]Contemporary immigrants tend to be younger than the native population of the United States, with people between the ages of 15 and 34 substantially overrepresented.[47] Immigrants are also more likely to be married and less likely to be divorced than native-born Americans of the same age.[48] Immigrants are likely to move to and live in areas populated by people with similar backgrounds. This phenomenon has held true throughout the history of immigration to the United States.[49] Seven out of ten immigrants surveyed by Public Agenda in 2009 said they intended to make the U.S. their permanent home, and 71% said if they could do it over again they would still come to the US. In the same study, 76% of immigrants say the government has become stricter on enforcing immigration laws since the September 11, 2001 attacks (9/11), and 24% report that they personally have experienced some or a great deal of discrimination.[50] Public attitudes about immigration in the U.S. were heavily influenced in the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks. After the attacks, 52% of Americans believed that immigration was a good thing overall for the U.S., down from 62% the year before, according to a 2009 Gallup poll.[51] A 2008 Public Agenda survey found that half of Americans said tighter controls on immigration would do a great deal to enhance U.S. national security.[52] Harvard political scientist and historian Samuel P. Huntington argued in Who Are We? The Challenges to Americas National Identity that a potential future consequence of continuing massive immigration from Latin America, especially Mexico, might lead to the bifurcation of the United States. The population of illegal Mexican immigrants in the US fell from approximately 7 million in 2007 to 6.1 million in 2011 [53] Commentators link the reversal of the immigration trend to the economic downturn that started in 2008 and which meant fewer available jobs, and to the introduction of tough immigration laws in many states.[54][55][56][57] According to the Pew Hispanic Center the total number of Mexican born persons had stagnated in 2010, and tended toward going into negative figures.[58] More than 80 cities in the United States,[59] including Washington D.C., New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, San Francisco, San Diego,San Jose, Salt Lake City, Phoenix, Dallas, Fort Worth, Houston, Detroit, Jersey City, Minneapolis, Miami, Denver, Baltimore, Seattle,Portland, Oregon and Portland, Maine, have sanctuary policies, which vary locally.[60] - Effects of immigration Demographics The Census Bureau estimates the US population will grow from 281 million in 2000 to 397 million in 2050 with immigration, but only to 328 million with no immigration.[77] A new report from the Pew Research Center projects that by 2050, non-Hispanic whites will account for 47% of the population, down from the 2005 figure of 67%.[78] Non-Hispanic whites made up 85% of the population in 1960.[79] It also foresees the Hispanic population rising from 14% in 2005 to 29% by 2050.[80] The Asian population is expected to more than triple by 2050. Overall, the population of the United States is due to rise from 296 million in 2005 to 438 million in 2050, with 82% of the increase from immigrants.[81] In 35 of the countrys 50 largest cities, non-Hispanic whites were at the last census or are predicted to be in the minority.[82] In California, non-Hispanic whites slipped from 80% of the states population in 1970 to 42.3% in 2008.[83][84] Immigrant segregation declined in the first half of the cen tury, but has been rising over the past few decades. This has caused questioning of the correctness of describing the United States as a melting pot. One explanation is that groups with lower socioeconomic status concentrate in more densely populated area that have access to public transit while groups with higher socioeconomic status move to suburban areas. Another is that some recent immigrant groups are more culturally and linguistically different than earlier group and prefer to live together due to factors such as communication costs.[85] Another explanation for increased segregation is white flight.[86] â€Å"The lesson of these 236 years is clear – immigration makes America stronger. Immigration makes us more prosperous. And immigration positions America to lead in the 21st century.† President Obama, July 4, 2012 A stronger GDP means a better standard of living for Americans.Immigrants start small businesses.Immigrant-owned businesses create jobs for American workers.Immigrants boost demand for local consumer goods. More than 40 percent of Fortune 500 companies were founded by immigrants or a child of immigrants. According to thePartnership for a New American Economy these companies employ more than 10 million people worldwide and generate annual revenue of $4.2 trillion. Immigrants innovate as scientists and engineers.Immigrants develop cutting-edge technologies and companies.Immigrant scientist and engineers positively impact wages.Fixing our broken immigration system is critical to bilateral trade and U.S. exports. Fixing our broken immigration system will help increase international travel and tourism to America. merica’s immigration system is broken. Too many employers game the system by hiring undocumented workers and there are 11 million people living in the shadows. Neither is good for the economy or the country. Together we can build a fair, effective and common sense immigration system that lives up to our heritage as a nation of laws and a nation of immigrants. The President’s plan builds a smart, effective immigration system that continues efforts to secure our borders and cracks down on employers who hire undocumented immigrants. It’s a plan that requires anyone who’s undocumented to get right with the law by paying their taxes and a penalty, learning English, and undergoing background checks before they can be eligible to earn citizenship. It requires every business and every worker to play by the same set of rules. The Know Nothing movement was an American political movement that operated on a national basis during the mid 1850s. It promised to purify American politics by limiting or ending the influence of Irish Catholics and other immigrants, thus reflecting nativismand anti-Catholic sentiment. It was empowered by popular fears that the country was being overwhelmed by German and Irish Catholicimmigrants, whom they saw as hostile to republican values and controlled by the pope in Rome. Mainly active from 1854 to 1856, it strove to curb immigration and naturalization, but met with little success. Membership was limited to Protestant males. There were few prominent leaders, and the largely middle-class membership fragmented over the issue of slavery. The most prominent leaders were ex-President Millard Fillmore (the partys presidential nominee in 1856), Massachusetts Congressman Nathaniel P. Banks,[1] and former congressman Lewis C. Levin. Social Irish immigration was opposed in the 1850s by the nativist Know Nothing movement, originating in New York in 1843. It was engendered by popular fears that the country was being overwhelmed by Irish Catholic immigrants. In 1891, a lynch mob stormed a local jail and hanged several Italians following the acquittal of several Sicilian immigrants alleged to be involved in the murder of New Orleans police chief David Hennessy. The Congress passed the Emergency Quota Act in 1921, followed by the Immigration Act of 1924. The Immigration Act of 1924 was aimed at limiting immigration overall, and making sure that the nationalities of new arrivals matched the overall national profile. After the September 11 attacks, many Americans entertained doubts and suspicions about people apparently of Middle-Eastern origins.[citation needed] NPR in 2010 fired a prominent black commentator, Juan Williams, when he talked publicly about his fears on seeing people dressed like Muslims on airplanes.[127] Racist thinking among and between minority groups does occur;[128][129] examples of this are conflicts between blacks and Korean immigrants,[130] notably in the 1992 Los Angeles Riots, and between African Americans and non-white Latino immigrants.[131][132] There has been a long running racial tension between African American and Mexicanprison gangs, as well as significant riots in California prisons where they have targeted each other, for ethnic reasons.[133][134] There have been reports of racially motivated attacks against African Americans who have moved into neighborhoods occupied mostly by people of Mexican origin, and vice versa.[135][136] There has also been an increase in violence between non-Hispanic Anglo Americans and Latino immigrants, and between African immigrants and African Americans.[137] A 2007 study on assimilation found that Mexican immigrants are less fluent in English than both non-Mexican Hispanic immigrants and other immigrants. While English fluency increas es with time stayed in the United States, although further improvements after the first decade are limited, Mexicans never catch up with non-Mexican Hispanic who never catch up with non-Hispanics. The study also writes that Even among immigrants who came to the United States before they were ï ¬ ve years old and whose entire schooling was in the United States, those Mexican born have average education levels of 11.7 years, whereas those from other countries have average levels of education of 14.1 years. Unlike other immigrants, Mexicans have a tendency to live in communities with many other Mexicans which decreases incentives for assimilation. Correcting for this removes about half the fluency difference between Mexicans and other immigrants.[138] Religious diversity Immigration from South Asia and elsewhere has contributed to enlarging the religious composition of the United States. Islam in the United States is growing mainly due to immigration. Hinduism in the United States, Buddhism in the United States, and Sikhism in the United States are other examples.[139] Since 1992, an estimated 1.7 million Muslims, approximately 1 million Hindus, and approximately 1 million Buddhists have immigrated legally to the United States. Os Imigrantes e as Religià µes A maior religià £o dos EUA à © o cristianismo, cerca de 78,4% da populaà §Ãƒ £o à © cristà £. Tradicionalmente a maioria dos americanos eram majoritariamente protestantes, mas pela primeira vez em 2011 o grupo atingiu porcetagem menor que metade da populaà §Ãƒ £o. Ainda assim os americanos continuam sendo de maioria protestante somando 48% ou ainda ma maioria crentes 51% somando afiliaà §Ãƒ µes mà ³rmons. O cristianismo foi introduzidos durante o perà ­odo da colonizaà §Ãƒ £o europeia. O cristianismo à © uma das religià µes que mais cresce nos EUA. Isto se deve, entre outros fatores, pelo elevado nà ºmero de imigrantes latino-americanos e filipinos que o paà ­s recebe a cada ano. A regià £o com a maior concentraà §Ãƒ £o de catà ³licos à © o Nordeste, que apesar de ter sido colonizada por puritanos, recebeu grande nà ºmero de imigrantes catà ³licos europeus (principalmente alemà £es, irlandeses e italianos) a partir da segunda metade do sà ©culo XIX. O Norte, à ¡rea de forte influà ªncia da Igreja Batista, por outro lado, à © a regià £o com a menor porcentagem de catà ³licos. Os  Ingleses, Alemà £es, Escoceses, Holandeses, Noruegueses entre outros do norte europeu introduziram o Protestantismo, enquanto os franceses, espanhà ³is e irlandeses trouxeram o Catolicismo. Apesar de seu status de religià £o mais difundida e mais influente nos EUA, o Cristianismo està ¡ num declà ­nio relativo contà ­nuo. Quando o nà ºmero absoluto de cristà £os foi levantado de 1990 a 2001, a porcentagem cristà £ da populaà §Ãƒ £o caiu de 88.3% para 79.6%. O Judaà ­smo à © a quarta maior preferà ªncia religiosa nos EUA. Os judeus atuais està £o presentes nos EUA desde o sà ©culo XVII, embora a imigraà §Ãƒ £o em grande escala nà £o tenha ocorrido atà © o sà ©culo XIX, em maior parte por causa das perseguià §Ãƒ µes na Europa Oriental. O CIA Fact Book estima que 1% dos americanos pertencem a esse grupo. Aproximadamente 25% dessa populaà §Ãƒ £o vive em Nova York. O Budismo entrou nos EUA durante o sà ©culo XIX com a chegada dos primeiros imigrantes da à sia Oriental. O primeiro templo budista foi estabelecido em San Francisco em 1853 pelos chineses-americanos. Ao longo do sà ©culo XIX, missionà ¡rios budistas do Japà £o vieram aos EUA. Simultaneamente a estes processos, certos intelectuais dos EUA ficaram interessados pelo budismo. O sà ©culo XX foi caracterizado por uma continuaà §Ãƒ £o das tendà ªncias do sà ©culo XIX. A segunda metade, pelo contraste, viu uma emergà ªncia de correntes principais do movimento budista que tornou-se uma massa e um fenà ´meno religioso social. Estimativas do nà ºmero de budistas nos Estados Unidos variam de 0.5% a 0.9%. No que diz respeito a histà ³ria do Islà £ nos EUA, ainda que muito pequena, a populaà §Ãƒ £o muà §ulmana aumentou extremamente nos à ºltimos cem anos. Boa parte do crescimento foi por causa da imigraà §Ãƒ £o e pela conversà £o. Atà © um terà §o dos muà §ulmanos americanos sà £o africanos que se converteram ao Islà £ durante os à ºltimos setenta anos. A imigraà §Ãƒ £o muà §ulmana aumentou em 2005, assim como mais pessoas de paà ­ses islà ¢micos se tornaram residentes legais permanentes nos EUA do que qualquer ano, nas duas dà ©cadas anteriores. A estimativa de muà §ulmanos nos EUA à © de 2,35 milhà µes (0,8% do total da populaà §Ãƒ £o). A primeira vez que o Hinduà ­smo entrou nos Estados Unidos nà £o està ¡ claramente identificado. No entanto, grandes grupos de hindus emigraram da à ndia e de outros paà ­ses asià ¡ticos desde o Ato pela Imigraà §Ãƒ £o e Nacionalidade de 1965. Durante as dà ©cadas de 1960 e 1970, o fascà ­nio pelo Hinduà ­smo contribuiu para o pensamento New Age. Atualmente, as estimativas de hindus nos Estados Unidos sugerem um nà ºmero de quase 800.000 pessoas, ou cerca de 0.4% do total da populaà §Ãƒ £o. A religià £o hindu està ¡ em crescimento nos Estados Unidos, nà £o sà ³ graà §as a imigraà §Ãƒ £o, mas tambà ©m devido a conversà £o de muitos ocidentais. Place of birth for the foreign-born population in the United States Top ten countries| 2010| 2000| 1990| Mexico| 11,711,103| 9,177,487| 4,298,014| China| 2,166,526| 1,518,652| 921,070| India| 1,780,322| 1,022,552| 450,406| Philippines| 1,777,588| 1,369,070| 912,674| Vietnam| 1,240,542| 988,174| 543,262| El Salvador| 1,214,049| 817,336| 465,433| Cuba| 1,104,679| 872,716| 736,971| South Korea| 1,100,422| 864,125| 568,397| Dominican Republic| 879,187| 687,677| 347,858| Guatemala| 830,824| 480,665| 225,739| All of Latin America| 21,224,087| 16,086,974| 8,407,837| All Immigrants| 39,955,854| 31,107,889| 19,767,316|

Business Essay -- Sociology, Culture, Melting Pot

In the past, the world was parts of continents and continents parts of countries which represent their culture separately. In addition, the communication between different cultures and communities slightly difficult or need so much time. Nowadays, we could imagine something different from the past which we hear terms of new world features like melting pot, globalization, culture, and global perspective. Al-Balabki (1995:570) concludes that, melting pot is a place where immigrants of different ethnicities, cultures or countries come to live together with variety of ideas and races. According to J. Jary (1991) that,†culture is defined as the unique ideas, customs, skills, arts, behavior, appearances and communication of a group of people†. To quote Wikipedia (n.d), â€Å"globalization refers to increasing global connectivity, integration and interdependence in the economic, social, technological, cultural, political and ecological spheres†. Moreover, there are many examples for global culture which make all cultures around the world effective. However, I am going to write about internet, English as a global language and business in this essay. Internet is the largest sources of information in these days. It can provide a wide variety of information which anyone needs it. Internet revolution has made a huge change in many aspects in our lives. It becomes a method to know more and more about many different things. It helps the whole world to be small village. Now anyone could speak with another person in minutes or less than that. Moreover, you can communicate with people from different country, culture, lifestyle and geography. It is really amazing system which enriches the global development in most fields. Co... ...Birkat Almouz store. However, business ethics and management structure dive me real experience to deal with managers or customers to reach work performance and customer satisfaction in any work place around the world. In conclusion, globalization has its effects in different fields business, internet, and English language in the whole world. They are important examples which have influential causes and reasons. In my opinion, sometimes they are being positive and sometime being negative. For instance, some examples of global culture being useful just for the first world countries and in the same case being harmful for third world countries. However, globalization solve so much points like wasting time, make the distances between different counties are too small and easier. As a result, every country should modify each globalization example to be fitness.

Ethics Case Assignment Essay

Wayne Terrago, controller for Robbin Industries, was reviewing production cost reports for the year. One amount in these reports continued to bother himadvertising. During the year, the company had instituted an expensive advertising campaign to sell some of its slower-moving products. It was still too early to tell whether the advertising campaign was successful. There had been much internal debate as how to report advertising cost. The vice president of finance argued that advertising costs should be reported as a cost of production, just like direct materials and direct labor. He therefore recommended that this cost be identified as manufacturing overhead and reported as part of inventory costs until sold. Others disagreed. Terrago believed that this cost should be reported as an expense of the current period, based on the conservatism principle. Others argued that it should be reported as Prepaid Advertising and reported as a current asset. The president finally had to decide the issue. He argued that these costs should be reported as inventory. His arguments were practical ones. He noted that the company was experiencing financial difficulty and expensing this amount in the current period might jeopardize a planned bond offering. Also, by reporting the advertising costs as inventory rather than as prepaid advertising, less attention would be directed to it by the financial community. Instructions (a) Who are the stakeholders in this situation The stakeholders in this situation are Wayne Terrago controller for Robbin Industries, Robbin Industries vice president of finance, Robbin Industries employees (others I am assuming are employees from Robbin Industries financial department), and the financial community (external users). Correct INCLUDEPICTURE http//edugen.wiley.com/edugen/courses/crs4477/common/art/pixel.gif MERGEFORMATINET (b) What are the ethical issues involved in this situation The ethical issue involved in this situation is how to report advertising cost. The case shows many discrepancies about the way the advertising expenses should be recorded.

German Political Theory Essay

The early German philosophers have been some of the most controversial and well-acclaimed philosophers in the history of political theory. Individuals such as Immanuel Kant, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Jurgen Habermas have revolutionized the mechanisms of the world of human beings with their daring thoughts and radical insights. It is through their critical thought about the things they observe around them that they have created a new way by which society has been able to move on through the years. One of the more critical aspects of German philosophy is the fact that it is highly diverse. The ideologies and principles, although supposedly based on a single culture, that have come from the different German philosophers are varied to such a point that at times they even counter each other in terms of drive and argument. Simply put, this means that there is no one theory regarding family, society, and government that generated by the popular German philosophers. The progression of theories dealing with the family, society, and government, the interaction that exists between these three, and the implications of these interactions have not bee additive or geared towards aggregation in German philosophy. German philosophy and German political theory has been an assortment of personal criticisms and associations, personal recommendations and personal assertions which were based on observations and solid evidence. Although it has not been an effort towards creating one single vantage point regarding society, German philosophy has been a regulatory force of society. Thus the fact that there are theories disagreeing with one another was highly adaptive to the creative and analytical spirit of the philosophers. The uniqueness of German theorists as compared to other theorists lies in the one characteristic that is shared by their different theories. This is the fact that German theories go to the heart of the matter. They are primarily concerned with controversial issues that are sometimes taken for granted by others. This means that they question what they observe. They question the moral, political, and economic sanctions they themselves grew up with. By changing the way people view and understand their society, German theory has been a main mover of history. How did German philosophers like Kant and Nietzsche conceive of their theories? It was simply through an observation of society and through critical analysis of the dynamics of the interactions of the different factors contributing to society’s continuation. It was through a belief and confidence that their ideas regarding certain issues were indeed more correct and more reflective of society than the theories regarding society and politics that were present during their own time. I will try to accomplish in this paper a description of my own theories regarding family, society, and government as well as the impact these three have on each other. I will include, at certain points, some of the major theories by the more popular German philosophers. However, this will not be an analysis of their theories. This will be a look into my own theories, a conception of my own German political theory, which will be strengthened by arguments from Kant, Hegel, Marx, Engels, Nietzsche, and Habermas – some of which I will agree to and some of which I will disagree to. My own definitions and perceived importance of the three concepts will also be discussed as these will form the base of my theories regarding their interactions with each other. The Family It is said that the family is the basic unit of society. This is a basic fact that is taught to everyone early on in their lives. My paper will, therefore, start off on this basic unit and will build on from here. A majority of the theories and works by the German philosophers fail to mention the family. If the family has been mentioned, it has most often been placed in the backwaters of what the philosophers considered more pressing matters such as society and the ruling class. (Poster, 1978) Definition The family is characterized as a group of individuals that are related to each other through one or a combination of the following features: a) living with each other in the same residence; b) having come from the same blood line; c) having an affinity with one another beyond that found in friends and even more so than that found between mere acquaintances and complete strangers. In today’s society, I don’t think it is appropriate to define the family using its traditional nuclear model – a model having a father, mother, and children in the picture. There are many families today that function without a complete combination of these individuals. Also, there are many cultures that regard a family to be more than just a group of individuals brought together on account of their consanguinity. One could consider, for example, that a group of unrelated individuals who have taken care and love one as more of a true family than the individuals linked directly to that individual through biology. Also, there are many instances of broken families and families with unconventional pairings of figureheads. There are families that exist without the presence of a father or a mother. There are groups considered as families regardless of the fact that the supposed father is no longer the biological father of the children. Same sex marriages with or without children are also considered families despite the traditional view of what a family used to be. It is my belief, therefore, that a family is created as a product of the coming together of individuals with common or parallel goals, who reside together in the same place, and who more frequently have positive regard rather than negative regard for one another. The family is not a unit of society that is to be disregarded as having a small role in the interplay of the various factors of society and government. Its importance and functions are critical in the continuation of the individual, of society, and of the government. Theory on its Importance Despite the fact that almost all the German philosophers have discussed society and government in relation to the individual, I believe the family is a more critical unit to the individual. In fact, the family may have a greater impact on society and government as opposed to the individual. This is not to say that the individual plays a small role as opposed to the family. What I wish to point out, rather, is that the non-consideration of the family has led to a deficit in what most of the German philosophers have conceptualized as the successful as well as faulty mechanisms behind the individual, society, and government. The family can be considered as an individual’s sanctuary from the world. By this, I mean that the family can give a person a feeling of safety, love, and positive regard. It works to encourage the individual and to foster for that individual a sense of trust and acceptance. As Hegel (2001) described it, a family is comprised of members and not individual persons. This indicates the unifying feature of a family. However, these positive regard and functions of this unit for an individual is not met in all families. There are many families with a history of violence and abuse. There are others that simply have feelings of apathy. I believe that in these cases, the individual creates for himself or herself a new family unit, one that I previously defined to have foundations not on biology and consanguinity but rather on other more spiritual and moral factors. However, when we are given the two cases of families – one fostering a positive atmosphere and one fostering a negative or neutral atmosphere for the individual – I stand firm in thinking that both have equal importance in the creation of the individual. It is the family that first affects the individual’s physical, psychological, emotional, and moral development. It is also the family that influences the direction of this growth. This is seen most clearly when we see that the family is in charge of the education of the children that are members of its structure. (Hegel, 2001) Yes, the individual has his or her own say in the way his or her life moves but which one of us can say that we have not been to a great degree relying on our families? And because we are dependent on our families, our families can dictate the decisions we make for ourselves, decisions which add up to create the type of people we are now. Also, it is undeniable that we are more likely to adapt for ourselves the principles and behavior exhibited by our family members. This is why most family members usually resemble each other with regards to likes, dislikes, and tendencies in behavior. The importance of the family to society and to the government will be discussed in the succeeding sections. Suffice it to say at this point that, indeed, as an independent unit of society, the family has important roles to play in an individual’s life. These roles are not merely based on its nurturing qualities but also on the control the family has on an individual’s personality, character, and life. However, it should be noted that the family’s success is in its eventual dissolution as children continue on to create families of their own. (Hegel, 2001) I think that Hegel is right with regards to dissolution being a necessary step in the family process. However, I also believe that this dissolution is only physical. Younger members merely begin to live in different houses in order to form new family units. This does not mean, however, that the family has ceased in its functions in the individual’s life. It still exists as a support system, a guide, and a source of love and nurture. Society The next concept has been touched on and included in the theories of the major German philosophers. Society, by itself, has been dissected and analyzed. Its functions, systems, and importance have been stated, restated, and renewed throughout the history of German political theory. Either way, it is clear that a great many of the concerns and issues faced by an individual come from a larger scale than that of his family. Definition Society is a group of individuals joined together by common interests and who may or may not be identified by similar cultural beliefs and traditions. This means that different ethnic groups may form a society. It is not necessary for society to be based on a single culture. What I mean by this is that a German, an American, and a Pole could just as easily form a single society despite the fact that their cultures of origin are different. A concrete example would be American society. America is a melting pot of cultures. Despite the great number of ethnic groups represented in America, however, all these individuals still belong to one distinct society – the American society. Society is not necessarily linked to nationhood. It can even be used to refer to the entirety of humanity. Depending on the use of the term, society can refer to both a specific group of people and also to all peoples the world over. I believe, however, that society has characteristics that help identify it. These include: 1) membership and a criteria for membership 2) an organizational structure 3) social interaction and behavior By this I mean that a particular society is exclusive. There are only a specific set of individuals who can be allowed to partake of the benefits of belonging to a given society. Because of the very fact that society is comprised of many individuals, there is a need for a basic skeletal structure by which to base its functioning. Also, a society is empty and unable to function without allowing its members to interact with each other. There is a need for the members to be able to interact either directly or indirectly in order for society to continue on its processes. The success of these processes is dependent on the quality of the interaction between the different members of society.